Prescriptive And Descriptive Grammar

Prescriptive And Descriptive Grammar A pedagogical grammar refers to the modified approach that is now adopted in linguistics to facilitate the process of teaching an extra language. In broader spectrum it can be defines as the grammar that exists to help foreign language learners. Pedagogical grammar can be categorized into two distinct but interconnected theory areas. First of which is concerned with descriptive models can be integrated with pedagogical reference along with teaching materials that makes the process of learning easy and simple for the learner. Secondly premises about second-language achievement form the other category of pedagogical grammar. It provides the fundamentals about class attitudes and tactics. It in general guides students about grammatical concepts which appear to be insightful for a native speaker while extremely complicated for a non-native speaker. An indigenous English speaker needs less attention an instruction in correcting some obvious sentence structure mistakes. For instance he would be easily able to invert the words You do know me to form an appropriate sentence as Do you know me? However for somebody who is learning English as his second language would demand a detailed explanation about making this inversion. This fact becomes more lucid when the persons native language formulates question following a different way. Guiding about this particular area of grammar might appear monotonous and pointless for first-language speakers but it is an essential aspect of pedagogical grammar. ( Ortega, 2008) Pedagogical grammar introduces rules about correcting the language usage in communications. For instance it guides about the language that a doctor uses to check his patients and write his prescriptions. Similarly pedagogical grammar also deals with descriptive grammars teaching the speakers to have a strong grip over the language to make sure they use it frequently even without considering the proper rules before speaking. Summing up pedagogical grammar forms a border between the grounds of prescriptive and descriptive language. Using both approaches is vital to serve the purpose of pedagogical grammar that is to help non-native speakers use the language fluently. In order to make a learner perfectly skilled in his desirable language, it is important to make obey the rules of prescriptive grammar to improve his utterances. On the contrary by means of descriptive language the foreign language learners comprehend the way native speakers make use of the language. However it is necessary the learners make complete sense in his communication when using slangs or some other non-standard learning ways. Lexicogrammar is a term that is often considered unusual in the systemic functional linguistics. Basically it defines the level of linguistic structure wherein expressions or vocabulary, and grammar, or sentence structure come under the same heading. The words and grammatical structure are not considered independent variables at this level. In fact the modern concept is that both of them are mutually dependent that is one has a profound influence on the other. The similar relation between lexis and grammar has been discussed in many linguistic theories and approaches. This entry in particular will focus more on the systemic functional linguistics (SFL) as well as corpus linguistics (CL), because both these hypothetical-procedural frameworks have strong relation with applied linguistics. In both the cases lexicogrammar plays a vital role. For Instance; the Lexicogrammatical learning techniques should be implemented in classrooms on daily basis. This would enable the second language learners achieve the optimum result similar to those individuals who are learning their first language. In case the students are not told about the phrases used commonly in native English, they will definitely get confused when have a conversation with somebody. It is a fact that second language learners would not be able to think of the routine conversational phrases that the native speakers frequently use. Therefore they should be taught about this to make sure they also attain a native like fluency in their language skills. It has also been deliberated that the prescriptive grammar emphasizes more about grammatical errors and cohesiveness. It guides student about the appropriate grammar rules, probable error areas in terms oral and written communication. It includes all the flexible and necessary guidelines about the language. This parti cular type of grammar describes how people converse using correct sentence structure without considering the strict rules now and then. ( Lins, 2007) Provide your position toward the following statement by using theories and research results: L1-L2 differences cause learning difficulties. For example, is it true or do you agree or disagree and why? Evaluating the relationship between mother tongue (L1) and second language (L2) has been one of the most important subjects under discussion in the arena of second language acquisition (SLA) research. I do not comply with the statement that L1-L2 differences results in learning complications because there are also many other factors that affect the learning process directly. A major part of the discussion emphasizes on the transfer phenomena which is typically referred to the incorporation characteristics of L1 into the informative systems of L2 that the learner is trying to construct. During the time frame 1950s-1960, transfer is seen to be one of the main causes of learning difficulties. Following in 1970s L2 acquisition process was denied in all the places. After all this crucial points of transfer debate has been determined which states in spite of the possession of irritating and elusive character, transfer is considered to be the major factor crafting the learners inter-languag e performance. Moreover it is also becoming evident that transfer phenomena are not just limited to learners integration of L1 elements into their L2 production. It is also believed that transfer is caused by similarities and differences between languages. It is not restricted to the impact of L1 and L2 but also encompasses the influence of L2 and L3. (Cook, Long McDonough, 1979). In spite of extensive research done in this arena, there are still a lot of issues left unresolved such as nature of transfer, situations in which it occurs and related psychological processes. For instance effect of L1 on L2 performance is most prominent in the field of phonology wherein foreign accent is possibly the best demonstration of learners mother tongue in L2 speech. However the most research done on these phonological skills of L2 previously revolved around segmented issues. Therefore all the possible pro-sody was disregarded. The relation between the languages is known to very crucial as it determines the nature of second language acquisition. The acquisition of L1 and L2 did not differ then the research would only be about sub-field of language acquisition. It is actually a maxim that defines the features of L2 acquisition as the availability of another language with the presence of the first language in the same mind. Besides the characteristic of L2 community is define d as the supplementary usage of additional languages in association with the first language. Explain the notions of attention and noticing and their roles in L2 learning. Modern researchers state that noticing, which is defined as the level of attention and concentration, is a vital necessity for learning the grammatical forms of L2. This can be distinguished by its features such as a cognitive function called detection, consciousness and awareness. Both these elements are considered to be so essential that no innovative mental representation can be made in their absence. Moreover, according to many researchers and language instructors it is part of human skills and nature that he learns first languages more easily and effortlessly as in this case attention is not required along with awareness. On the contrary people learning second languages do not show such simplicity towards the learning process. They are not able to learn with the aid of detection only. Such difficulties and complications are more evident in learning grammar and cohesiveness of L2. The practical implementations seen in classrooms are generally noticeable. Here teachers and student s endeavor to use obscure cognitive processes that supervise both the processes of learning, attention and grammar learning.( Schmitt, 2010) Schmitt was the first person to conduct an effective research on the psychology associations with Second Language Acquisition (SLA). He claimed that the things that are noticeable are vital for L2 learning. He also hypothesized that noticing is an essential condition for this. Although many researchers considered noticing a vital component for L2 learning still the thoughts and opinions of other scholars differ in sense whether it is obligatory or not. Another factor considered to be important for L2 learning is attention, intentional or spontaneous. This human skill basically refers to his capability of concentrating on one task while paying no attention to the others. Subcategories of attention encompass alertness (eagerness to deal with a challenge), orientation (pathway of attention), detection (cognitive registration of a situation) and inhibition (negligence towards stimuli). The SLA theory states that one cannot learn anything from input unless it has formed the object of atte ntion. It is true that it is necessary for L2 learning to focus on cognitive activities in regards with specific stimuli over time. The issue that is debatable in this arena is whether or not this discernment shall be conscious. Noticing refers to assigning importance to one aspect as compared to others. It is a form of awareness which determines private experience of learner linguistically. It has also been deliberated by many researchers that noticing is important for changing input to intake in case of learning L2. Schmitt (2010) also described the minimum prerequisite of noticing as the attention paid to deal with grammatical components in input. This is done with the accomplishment of reporting threshold level of subjective responsiveness and knowledge about the experience.

Both Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne Essay

Both Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne may be classified as writers of the gothic fiction genre in English Literature. Gothic literature is characterized by themes of darkness, such as death, dread and decay. In Poe’s short story The Tell-Tale Heart, death is a central concern. The protagonist is simply obsessed with the idea of committing murder. Instability and insanity are also very typical of gothic fiction, and the protagonist embodies both qualities in spite of his repeated insistence that he is quite sane. The architecture in this story is also quite Gothic – it is falling apart and is quite gloomy and dim. The use of the floorboards to hide the old man’s body echoes the gothic elements of underground and subterranean activities in both the literal and metaphorical senses. The horrors and neuroses that occupy gothic characters are quite evidently present in Poe’s short story. The excesses of emotion and heightened sense of horror captured in the story is essential to a piece of gothic fiction. Hawthorne’s Young Goodman Brown uses the typically gothic instrument of dreams as a means of carrying forward the action in the text. Dreams also serve to heighten the element of the supernatural and horror in the gothic text. The presence of the typical damsel in distress female character i. e. Faith and the Devil itself are some of the typical Gothic elements in Hawthorne’s work. The concepts of the staff as a symbol of evil and other Christian references may be interpreted as Gothic in this short story. Goodman’s quest for Faith is symbolic and works throughout the novel aided by the various Gothic elements of dreams, trances and desperation. The story examines how Goodman can be anyone at all. The most terrifying realization is that anyone at all is capable of great evil. Gothic themes of isolation are explored to drive this point home. More than anything else, both stories serve to employ the gothic genre in order to explore human nature and the consequences of human action, especially crime and the psychological motivations behind it. They go beyond sensationalism and explore real human emotions and the human condition using the gothic genre to heighten the experience for the reader. They explore the broad concepts of human beings and society and the web of relationships and influences that co-exist because of them. In exploring perversions they actually delve deep into the human psyche and invoke the horror of Gothic fiction to analyze the horror possible in daily human contact and regular human thoughts. The failure of the protagonists to see the larger picture or recognize their own insanity and guilt as well as their deep realization of these feelings despite their denial of them are what make the Gothic elements in these texts so effective.

Public Schools vs. Private Schools Essay - 899 Words

Public Schools vs. Private Schools A good education is an essential part of a child’s development. Today, parents have a choice in their child’s education and can evaluate both public and private schools. Although both public and private schools provide education and opportunities for students, parents should evaluate the differences and choose the option that best suits their child and families’ needs. In this paper, I will compare and contrast five major areas that relate to public and private schools including class size, cost, curriculum, services, and teachers. One of the first major differences between public and private schools is class size. Public schools follow state and federal guidelines in regard to class size. Most†¦show more content†¦Another difference among public and private schools is the curriculum. Public schools must follow the curriculum that is outlined by the state. The state outlines a curriculum for each subject at each grade level (Great Schools Staff, n.d.). The state also mandates the assessments for each grade level (Great Schools Staff, n.d.). The curriculums are similar among different states in the hope that if a students moves mid year, they will remain on track for their new school. Private schools have the ability to set their own curriculum. Private schools might advertise specialized curriculums in order to entice students (Great Schools Staff, n.d.). For example, private schools that are religiously affiliated will have religious based classes in addition to their basic curriculum. This is something that parents need to consider too. Also, private schools determine their own assessments and do not have to participate in standardized testing. Special education services are another difference between private and public schools. Public schools follow state and federal guidelines and therefore must follow the special education laws (Great Schools Staff, n.d.). All students can attend public school andShow MoreRel atedPrivate Schools Vs. Public Schools1406 Words   |  6 Pagesthat private school is more expensive than public school, but has it ever occurred to you why it is like this? Private schools are not just trying to take your money, they are just trying to provide a quality education, without the government funding that public schools get. The tuition money goes to very important things; high quality teachers, better resources and the overall quality and stability of the institution. It is true that private school tuition is expensive, but private schools haveRead MorePrivate Schools Vs Public Schools1723 Words   |  7 Pagesthink of private schools they often think of a quality of education that cannot be found in a public school. Private school education is thought of to be so thorough and innovative that public vouchers are given to individuals just to attend. Many parents could rest easier at night if their kids could attend private school because for generations it has been d rilled into the psyche of many that going to private school is a sure way to have a good future. In actuality however, private schools are notRead MorePrivate Schools Vs Public Schools1428 Words   |  6 Pagesstudy in private schools, which almost represents the fifth of students in Saudi Arabia. Although a lot of families prefer to make their children study in private school, that does not mean they are completely satisfied about the schools’ quality and their children’ achievement (Al-Hagbani, 2013). Nevertheless, they still enroll their children in private schools, believing they will benefit more from studying in private schools than public schools. In addition, some parents believe that private schoolsRead MorePrivate Schools Vs Public Schools1207 Words   |  5 PagesAn Introduction of the Topic Private schools differ from public schools for many different reasons. The major difference is that the government, unlike private schools that are privately funded, funds public schools. Another difference would be that the private schools have more flexibility on what they can teach because the government does not fund them. One other difference that is very prevalent is the social goals of schooling. This topic is a very important issue that many parents struggle withRead MorePrivate Schools Vs. Public Schools998 Words   |  4 Pagesnation. People today might say that private schools are superior to public schools, saying that they are safer and a better environment to learn in. Some might say that a private school is a way of sheltering your child and not letting them experience opportunities and face many problems to learn from. There are many positives and negatives to both sides; it mainly depends on whom you are talking to. Some parents might want their child to go to a pri vate school because the class size is smaller andRead MorePublic Schools vs. Private Schools1027 Words   |  4 Pagesare things to consider before choosing to send your child to a public school or private school. Perhaps doing so would be much easier if you would take the time to research the differences between the two. Public schools are better than private schools because of the diversity, funding and extracurricular activities available. Eileen Gale Kugler, a national advocate for diverse schools, wrote an article about how the diversity in schools makes academic and social improvements. She recalls a memoryRead More Private Schools vs. Public Schools870 Words   |  4 PagesChoosing between a public or a private school for one’s education is as important as deciding where to invest one’s hard-earned money—the consequences influence one’s life forever. In the United States, it is the law for every child to be educated. However, the decision as to where to go for one’s education is up to each individual. There is a great deal of debate as to which is the better option: for-profit private schools or one’s local public school. Ultimately, the decision is made regardingRead MorePrivate Schools vs. Public Schools 1081 Words   |  5 PagesHave you ever attended a private institution? What was your experience like? Think back and compare it to your ideal public school, which on e happens to pale in comparison? Public schools, which are controlled by the government, and heavily influenced, by politicians and privateers, hurt your children, not allowing them to reap the full benefits of their growing mind. â€Å"Our schools have been scientifically designed to prevent over-education from happening. The average American [should be] contentRead MorePrivate School Vs. Public School1254 Words   |  6 PagesThesis: Private school students are more likely to have a better viewpoint in learning, a firm stance in education, and will be more successful in colleges than of public school students. I. Introduction A. Attention Getter: According to NCES data, 88 percent of private high school students apply to college, compared to 57 percent of public high school students. Every day parents contemplate whether to send their children to private or public school. There are many dangers that come with public schoolRead MorePrivate Schools Vs Public Schools921 Words   |  4 Pageschild’s education, parents want the best the school has to offer their children. Parents want a prosperous future for their child which is not only health, but a well-educated one. Education is of the utmost importance especially because it will impact the child the most in the long run. Private schools offer ample education opportunities. There are some factors to consider when choose a private school education over a public one. Many times, the private schools are religious are having certain beliefs

Compare how VOICE is presented in The River God (Stevie Smith), My Last Duchess (Robert Browning) and The Hunchback in the Park (Dylan Thomas) Free Essay Example, 1000 words

In the former, the River talks about ordinary, river experiences at the beginning, but mentions how he drowned a beautiful lady to keep her with him forever. The latter poem also starts out somewhat casually with the Duke discussing a wall-painting of his Duchess and how beautiful and jolly she is. As the poem progresses, the Duke’s intense jealousy and petty arrogance are revealed to have led him to order her death as he suspected her of infidelity. The two poems hence start out normal but take a turn for the macabre. The two masculine voices consider themselves to wield godly power and control the fate of others. They both seem to not only brazenly boast of, but take pleasure in murder. The tone of The Hunchback however does the opposite, starting out sad and depressing, but ending with a ray of hope for the hunchback as he loses himself in his imaginary world with his imaginary woman. The hunchback is not even regarded as human but more of an animal, as his abode is referr ed to as a â€Å"kennel†. He endures taunts and jibes from the boys in the park, his only respite being nighttime (TES 2011). We will write a custom essay sample on Compare how VOICE is presented in The River God (Stevie Smith), My Last Duchess (Robert Browning) and The Hunchback in the Park (Dylan Thomas) or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now As is the inherent nature of poems, the implications of the words used may not seem straightforward at first, but understanding the host of allusions, imagery and metaphors brings out the real meaning of the poem. The callousness of the River God may be borrowed from the Greco-Roman tales of gods such as Neptune, God of the Sea. The gods viewed humans as chess pieces and playthings for their amusement. The river holds these delusions of grandeur, believing he is the rescuer of the woman from her fear, when in fact he is the cause of it. He further justifies himself that she is just asleep, and that everyone above has forgotten about her. He keeps her captive on his â€Å"bed†, wordplay on both a â€Å"normal† or â€Å"marital† bed and the riverbed. He also indicates that he would never let her go, indicating the use of the same force by which he drowned her to keep her his. There is a hint that he knows what he did is not right, as the attempts at justifying hi s deeds show (TES 2011). My Last Duchess contains some of these themes as well. The male voice here is as drunk on power and seemingly, just as murderous, as the voice of the River God. The same theme of obsession and sexual jealousy shows up as the Duke complains that the â€Å"spot of joy† as the Duchess blushed and smiled was not caused by him alone. The poem makes it clear that the Duchess was a pleasant and sweet person who loved the simpler, natural things, the dropping of the daylight in the west, the bough of cherries, her white mule.

American Spirits Were Exceptionally High At The End Of The...

American spirits were exceptionally high at the end of the War of 1812 which brought about a defeat of the British once again. In the years that followed the War, a sense of national unity materialized throughout the country as a One Party System grew out of James Monroe’s presidency with the disappearance of the Federalists. The Columbian Centinel proclaimed that this time period after the War of 1812 was an â€Å"Era of Good Feelings†, a phrase applied to Monroe’s presidency ever since. But contradictory to this label, this time period in American history was actually turbulent, for sectionalism propagated and a nationwide panic heightened. Therefore, with emerging sectionalism in subsequent events that followed the War of 1812, the time†¦show more content†¦During his presidency, Monroe supported the American System in which the government supported economic growth and protective measures for domestic manufacturers from foreign competition. Unfortunat ely, not everyone favored the American System. In the South especially, Southerners opposed such a protective tariff for it only supported Northern manufactures, while hurting the Southern economy at the same time. The South, primarily agricultural with a large exporting economy, had to import all of its goods having to pay up to â…“ it’s price in tax in order to comply with the American System. John Randolph, a Southerner, expressed his grievances to Congress hoping to alleviate the struggles of the South by saying, â€Å"no one interest in the country should be sacrificed by the management of taxation to another†¦ the agriculturalists bear the whole front of the war and taxation† (Document A). In saying this Randolph not only questioned Congress s intentions of collecting revenue and favoring the North, but also its job to regulate commerce, not taxes. The American System clearly drove a wedge between Northern and Southern interests. The institution of chartering a Second National Bank also stimulated many controversies. Once again, the Bank, an element of the American System created to strengthen national currency, placed commercial interests of the North over farmers and agriculturalists of the South. In the

4 main threats to Antarctica Free Essays

Tourism: Strange as it may be Antarctica is gradually developing into a popular tourist destination. This is because people who have been around the world and seen places like Niagara falls and Ayers rock and other natural phenomena’s like the idea of going to Antarctica and getting photos of penguins etc. The problem with this is that it upsets the local wildlife and can make disrupt mating season with certain species. We will write a custom essay sample on 4 main threats to Antarctica or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some of the ecosystems are so delicate that even the slightest human interference might disrupt them. These ecosystems must be protected at all costs and to protect them we cannot have tourists looking at them taking pictures getting involved with these animals who until recently had never seen a human before. Another bad thing about humans is wherever we go we tend to leave a mess and litter could severely damage the environment. Can you imagine a lichen/moss has taken hundreds of years to grow to finally get above the ice and survive only for a human to step on it and kill it? This is something that we cannot risk but tourism has a plus side. For instance it will provide another source of income that could help scientific equerries and if the proposed tourist building is built it will allow the scientists to work and do something different apart from research. It is hoped that this building would help tourism to expand from the present 2500 tourists a year. But how to protect animals from tourists? Is a very good question and a set of rules has been developed so that visitors can get a good experience without disturbing the wildlife too much. There is not much we can do to discourage tourism but we can set a limit to the amount of people allowed on the continent and make sure that they f ollow a set of guidelines so that they do not interfere with the wildlife. Mining: This is another big threat because things like oil and coal and minerals like copper and iron will not last forever. And the problem is that Antarctica has the worlds’ largest coal deposits and possibly huge stores of oil that could be used to extract tens of billions of barrels of oil. It also contains several large deposits of iron ore and even some of gold and silver. This leaves a dilemma because if the resources run out then Antarctica could well be the answer to the problems but; there are many downsides to mining in Antarctica. It would be very, very expensive because all food, water and equipment would have to be imported and then on top of that the minerals would have to be exported but to where, and how? It is a very hard problem to resolve. As well as the problem with transport as hard as that is obtaining the minerals. Most are buried beneath tonnes of ice and it would be extremely dangerous trying to retrieve them. Another point is that the minerals and co al are very low quality and not worth risking lives and money for. The treaty has banned mining for 50 years and even after that time it may not even be considered. But by that time someone may have developed a way of getting the materials cheaply and quickly who can tell? Currently there seems no need for a solution so it is not yet a problem but some time in the future it may be so we have to be prepare. Global warming: this is a big threat because if the ice caps were to melt then sea levels would definitely rise considerably. Also it is not just melting ice caps that are dangerous but moving ice caps. Huge sections of ice are breaking off from the main mass of ice and drifting away on the currents. Could you imagine what would happen if a section of ice with a colony of penguins went floating away to a warmer continent where they could not find food? It is unsatisfactory but at the present time there is nothing we can do to completely halt global warming but reducing will help slow down the melting ice although there is little that can be done. Fishing: There is a danger that krill and other small fish will be over fished and that mean a huge danger for all the animals in the Antarctic. Krill provide food for nearly every sea animal and if they are over fished then the other will starve. This means that the krill must be protected at all costs and made sure that their numbers are not allowed to drop. It takes 20 years for a fish to mature and so over fishing is a great danger. By lowering fishing quotas and the time the boats are allowed to fish in the waters will help to keep up krill numbers and not over fish. Opinions: we interviewed several different people and asked what they thought about the Antarctic and what should be done. Japanese whale hunter: ‘Hunting whales is my livelihood and my family and I would starve if I couldn’t hunt whales. Around the Antarctic there are lots of whales and we should be able to hunt them. I know we may put them in danger but there would be too many jobs lost if we weren’t allowed to do it.’ Australian fisherman: ‘I know that over fishing is a danger but we have to get enough fish to make money. I agree limiting the fish quota would help stop over fishing but they must not lower the fishing quota too much or we won’t be able to make any money.’ Scientist: ‘I am totally against any form of development, mining and even tourism because Antarctica, as the last wilderness on earth, cannot afford to be ruined by human corruption. If we allow too many tourists too come or too many fish to be caught then the whole eco-system that has survived for so long with no human interference will collapse.’ Politician: ‘It is my view that eventually some development on Antarctica should be considered but for now we should look to preserve it. Although it will require an income and many people may not get as much pay as they did this cannot be helped if he purity that is Antarctica is to be kept safe. In my opinion I believe that Antarctica should be kept the way it is although maybe making it into a huge wildlife preserve or a world park seem like very reasonable ideas. Every precaution must be taken to prevent over fishing and the animals life from being disturbed. I leave you with this thought. In a hundred years the world’s population could have doubled and every spare inch of land will be taken up by housing. Would you see a place like Antarctica filled up with houses? It may happen; so I suggest we try to keep it perfect while we still can and try to find out as much as we can before it’s too late. How to cite 4 main threats to Antarctica, Papers

What Is Appreciative Inquiry free essay sample

Chicago Appreciative inquiry is an approach to organizational and community development that has been used successfully worldwide to cultivate hope, build capacity, unleash collective appreciation and imagination, and bring about positive change. It is based on the simple idea that human beings move in the direction of what we ask about. When groups query human problems and conflicts, they often inadvertently magnify the very problems they had hoped to resolve. Conversely, when groups study exalted human values and achievements, like peak experiences, best practices, and worthy accomplishments, these phenomena tend to flourish. AI deliberately asks positive questions around affirmative topics to ignite constructive dialogue and inspired action within organizations and communities. Change research shows that community innovation methods that evoke stories, and affirm and compel groups of people to envision positive images of the future grounded in the best of the past, have the greatest potential to produce deep and sustaining change and inspire collective action. Appreciative Inquiry differs fundamentally from traditional problem-solving approaches. The basic assumption of problem-solving methodologies is that people and organizations are â€Å"broken† and need to be fixed. The process usually involves: (1) identifying the key problems; (2) analyzing the root causes; (3) searching for possible solutions; and (4) developing an action plan. Deficit-based analysis, while powerful in diagnosis, tends to undermine human organizing and motivation, because it creates a sense of threat, separation, defensiveness and deference to expert hierarchies. Problem solving as a means of inspiring and sustaining human systems change is therefore limited. In contrast, the underlying assumption of appreciative inquiry is that people and organizations are full of assets, capabilities, resources, and strengths that can be located, affirmed, leveraged and encouraged. There are a variety of AI models that guide how Appreciative Inquiry is practiced but all of them are based on: 1. Choosing the positive as the focus of inquiry 2. Inquiring into stories of life-giving forces Locating themes that appear in the stories and selecting topics for urther inquiry 4. Creating shared images of a preferred future 5. Finding innovative ways to create that future. Through constructive dialogue, trusted experience is shared, new possibilities imagined and new partnerships created to bring the desired future into being. The classic AI 4-D cycle includes: (1) discovery (valuing); (2) dream (envisioning); (3) design through dialogue; and (4) destiny (co-constructing the future. ) For resources on Appreciative Inquiry, see the AI Commons: appreciativeinquiry. case. edu Strengthening (Our) Questions Every question has a direction. Where it leads depends on its often hidden assumptions. Few questions are neutral; most carry a generative or destructive energy. What questions build a bridge or turn on a light? Which offer a path into shared understanding? What questions invite new ways of seeing and connecting to a community or country’s future as one that citizens have the choice to create working together? Our choice of questions has a moral impact. â€Å"Why can’t you ever do anything right? † presumes and creates an identity of incompetence. â€Å"What crime will ‘you people’ commit next? † enflames violence. Who made such a stupid decision? † looks to assign blame. â€Å"How can we get even? † rallies support for retaliation. â€Å"Why bother to invest in a ‘lost generation’? † reinforces despair about the future. Conversely, questions can inspire, intrigue, delight, clarify, invite and build community. They can create pathways to positive experiences and affections, stimulate reflection on issues of importance, and help people notice what is of value. â€Å"How did you learn to do such a good job? † honors an individual’s skill and generates useful information about creating a path to work for others. How can we support and learn from your community? † assumes there is much to be learned and invites relationship and trust. â€Å"How can we get this done now and how can I help? † infers confidence in an idea and a readiness to act on it, building solidarity and momentum to move forward. A positive connection is reinforced by asking What makes you glad to live in this country? instead of What are the biggest problems here? Shifting ownership of the future to citizens is activated by What can you do to make a difference? Appreciative Inquiry organizes sequences of positive questions around constructive topics. The difference can be seen by citing the example of a conversation I had with a high school class who wished to learn about their community. Four of the teams had originally chosen â€Å"crime† as their area of study before I arrived and designed questions accordingly to ask the local police chief. I asked them why they wanted to investigate crime. They said it was because they felt unsafe. â€Å"What is it that you want? † I inquired. After struggling with the question, they finally responded, â€Å"I guess we want to feel safe. â€Å"How do you think you’re likely to feel after you ask the police chief about crime in your neighborhood? † A girl responded that they would likely feel more scared, because they would find out about more bad things that might happen to them. â€Å"What if you asked him instead about community safety, important practices that support it, what the police are proud of having accomplished, what actions students might take to protect yourselves and make the neighborhood safer? † They acknowledged that such an interview would likely increase their respect for the police and their awareness of security strategies they could use. What do you think would be the effect of writing a letter to the police commander thanking him for the interview and the ways he is helping make the community safer? † They said such a letter would probably remind him of why he wanted to b e a policeman, and establish a relationship with him that they could draw on in the future. â€Å"Plus,† they added â€Å"I bet he never got a letter like that! †